Cultural communication in France

French people have expectations for people they interact with in their country whether foreign or local. They look to people trying to express themselves in French, because they are proud of their culture and their history with all the roles it has played on the world affairs. They have a brief hand shake done when as greetings for when people and also as bye bye when people are leaving. During discussions people face each other and are close to each other. It is considered rude to chew a gun in public, and to have hands inside the pockets while speaking to people or in public.Political discussions are usually common subjects in discussion which gets interesting since they are heated debates, this is a form of entertainment but people prefer not to talk about how they voted, or are planning to vote. At introductions people prefer to use the first name alone. At work, in schools there lacks the spirit of team work as students are taught on a system which encourages individual goal rea lization. Their dressing is more formal as compared to Americans, but they are not so conservative and they prefer to express their individuality by their way of dressing at work.Dark colored fabrics with patterns are in preference to light colored ones. In their meetings they spend so much time analyzing and little time on aims and steps to take. Meetings done over meals will only commence towards the end of a meal e. g. at dessert. French people are not so consciously punctual. They are a clear line between official matters and those that are private. Privacy is respected; knock and wait for an answer before you enter into a room. Organizations are based on hierarchy and centralization.

Future Criminology Essay

The advancements in technology have lead law enforcement officers to the rescue of an abducted child. Couple of decades ago law enforcement agencies did not have the technical resources such as the amber alert system as they do today. Technology has enables the United States of America to make positive changes in socialization of American citizens. Technology has also assisted the United States in preventing domestic terrorism. Law enforcement agencies have spent billions of dollars on technical logical equipment to aid in the defense of the country. Law enforcement agencies place heavy emphasis on advancing communication. As law enforcement officials try to improve communication through technology, criminals are advancing in cybercrimes. Many identity thefts are committed to the internet; scammers employ phishing techniques to gather personal information from people rather than criminals who rob mail boxes in order to gather personal information. As technology advances criminals adapt as well. This paper will display the positive aspect of future crime fighting as well as highlight the negative aspects. The direction of crime fighting has already been displayed by law enforcement agencies who are currently utilizing advanced technology. Law enforcement agencies have shifted focus on to social networks that have no limitations. Cybercrime has become very common in the American culture. In modern everyday life people utilize some source of technical logical communication device, which leaves the door open to advanced criminals. Cybercriminals posses the abilities to disassemble someone’s life, through personal information stored on communication devices. Cyber criminals usually search for social security numbers, names, birthdays, bank account numbers, and pin numbers. The perceptions of cybercrimes are considered to be an evolution of combined advancements in technology as well as identity theft, which has spread throug hout the world. Cybercrime victimizers’, target people who are less knowledgeable to the advancements of technology. Before the internet was created identity theft was as simple as stealing personal mail, and rummaging through trash cans. Cybercrime enables advanced criminals to make a fast profit with less chances of being caught. Computer  hackers have the ability to hack prohibited information such as bank servers, with the overall goal of achieving large amounts of money. Online scams such as phishing for personal information have become the trend among advancing criminals. Cybercriminals are typically known for thievery of personal data while trying to achieve a financial gain. Cybercriminals have designed websites that appear to be legitimate, but actually is quite the opposite. Cybercriminals have been gathering personal information through fake server windows with surveys, or something that would require all your personal information. According to National Crime Prevention, â€Å"An information broker, Choicepoint Inc., announced that an identity thief had hacked into their database and gained access to hundreds of thousands of documents. Some stolen information included full names, social security numbers, home addresses and credit reports (NCP, 2011).† A key to fighting off these advanced online crimes is awareness. One must be aware that the Internet is a powerful instrument and is used in many unscrupulous ways. Police agents currently devote an entire unit toward dealing with cybercrime. Private Citizens must also be proactive when dealing with their identity. For example, be aware of illegitimate companies, which wait for someone to provide his or her personal information. It is always a good idea to install security on computers that scan for hackers and other odd activity. Most important, be cautious when providing personal information to anyone on the Internet. The world we live in evolved to the point that we cannot assume an individual is trustworthy. That may be a sad reality, but taken very seriously. Cyber-criminals and their actions will certainly create social policy implications. For example, crime fighting may soon resemble that of a movie production. Crimes altogether become more technologically advanced, while cyb er-crimes begin to resemble crimes from a sci-fi atmosphere. According to Reyes, a team of researchers from Santa Clara University are developing predictive policing software (Reyes, 2011). Essentially, the high-tech software design is used to stop crime before it occurs. The high-tech software allows advancement and the upper hand on the criminal. The software also allows law enforcement to pinpoint a precise area where speculated crimes may occur. The crime is isolated or completely stopped before the damage begins. The software updates daily and provides current data, allowing police forces to position themselves before any  illegal activity begins. This may sound like an innovative tool that brings only a positive element, however, are these tools a way to cyber-profile individuals and allow law enforcement to make illogical assumptions based on probability? One must be aware that individuals are innocent until proven guilty, not innocent unless they meet a mathematical formula. The advancement in specific crime fighting methods is vital to the changing methods of criminal activity. Criminals are always looking for a ways to benefit themselves, so law enforcement agencies must shift to advance policing in order to stay a step ahead of criminal offenders. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a genetic material of a cell’s nucleus, which is a collection program that has become a great precision tool for law enforcement agencies to identify an alleged perpetrator or an alleged victim. The use of the DNA database is well known by society, because of the popular television shows such as Crime Scene Investigators (CSI), and Naval Criminal Investigative Service (NCIS), which have provided society with examples as to how the DNA data base is utilized. The DNA data base is simply a tool to identify alleged criminals and or victims. According to forensic specialist, â€Å"The database may include profiles of suspects awaiting trial, people arrested, convicted offenders and identifying unknown remains and even members of law enforcement (Schmalleger, 2012)†. Biometrics is the science of analyzing biological data such as fingerprints, DNA, voice pattern recognition, retina scans and facial recognition programs for the purpose of human identification. It is quickly becoming the most accurate means to identify individuals. A typical biometric scanner consists of a scanning device, software that puts the scanned info into digital form and compares it against a database (NPR, 2013). Biometrics started back in China in the 14th century. They used ink to stamp young children’s palms and footprints on paper for identification purposes. In most of the world until the late 19th century, identifying a person relied upon a person’s memory or the use of crude drawings. In about 1890 a system was used that relied on certain body measurements to identify criminals. This did not work very well as it was discovered that it was not uncommon for several persons to have the same measurements. This system was replaced by Richard Edward Henry of Scotland Yard, whose fingerprint system provided a very accurate method of identification (Schmallager, 2012). The next generation of smart phones from  the Apple Corporation has a new operating system that moves biometric science into the consumer market. This new system uses a fingerprint scan technology to allow only the authorized user to operate it. Nowadays consumer’s whole lives are contained on phones including personal information, financial and credit information and addresses. Apple purchased a high-tech company named Authentec which specializes in fingerprint technology to develop this technology. This technology along with iris scan programs will surely have great impact on law enforcement agencies such as: who has access to sensitive areas, safes, thumb drives or documents. This may lead to limiting access to firearms and maybe even who can fire a specific weapon (CBC News, 2013). Another new biometric technology that is being used in stores is facial recognition programs. Some upscale stores use these to recognize wealthy or famous customers as they enter a store and relay this to store employees. This program recognizes a specific person entering a store and compares it against a database of celebrities, sports stars and wealthy customers. It also gives the buying histories, clothing sizes and potential new products they may want to the sales persons. This program is strictly voluntary by most stores as the potential VIP customers want to save time or just be pampered. New technology allows two dimensional images to be converted to three dimensional that can make almost foolproof identifications. This technology is being used by agencies in several cities in various ways to passively monitor the public for wanted individuals. Law enforcement has adopted these methods for their own use. It appears that in some cases they are letting the private sector enginee r these technologies then apply them for their own use (CBC News, 2013). Law enforcement needs to stay ahead of these new biometric technologies as criminals are now working on ways to defeat some of these technologies. One way criminals use to obtain a person’s fingerprints is off of a glass surface to gain access to computers or other fingerprint access systems. Another one is creative ways to disguise your face from facial recognition programs (CBC News, 2013). Computer crimes have risen dramatically in recent years. These are usually referred to as cybercrime. Spyware is most often used to gain access to information contained on a computer or computer system. Spyware is defined as software that sends information from a computer to a third party without consent of  the owner that is unwanted, uninvited or annoying. This can come with free software, file sharing applications or even games. Just visiting certain websites, also called drive-by, can install this software without your knowledge. Spyware is designed to find out what a person prefers buys and what they search for on the internet and allow its authors to make money from this information or possibly gain sensitive data from law enforcement or military computers (CBC News, 2013). The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986 and amended in the 2002 Patriot Act define computer espionage, trespassing and stealing information. These acts say it is a crime to knowingly counterfeit a device that allows unauthorized access to computer or telecommunication system, receive payments from persons with the intent to commit fraud or using illegally obtained credit card numbers (CBC, 2013). The Department of Homeland Security is working on new programs and having success in countermeasures for cybercrimes. In 2011 they prevented $1.5 billion in business losses and made 72 arrests for people involved in sexual abuse of children on the internet. Police agencies have been reluctant in the past to combat cybercrime as it is expensive and time consuming to investigate but some are now getting involved in identity theft, child molesting using the internet to gain access to children and credit card fraud (DHS, 2013). Mandatory DNA collection programs exist in all 50 states in one form or another. Most have laws mandating DNA collection for certain felony convictions and some for juvenile arrests. Some even allow collections prior to convictions as in California. California is being challenged in court by lawsuits by the ACLU. They feel that innocent persons are being forced to provide DNA samples. There is a DNA database called CODIS where agencies can browse data to identify suspects in crimes. This system allows agencies to positively identify or eliminate suspects (Legal Match, 2013). Unfortunately, the reason that law enforcement evolves is often due to an unforeseen tragedy. For example, after the 9/11 tragedy the â€Å"Homeland Security Advisory System† was introduced. It was a color-coded system that communicated a â€Å"terrorist threat level to federal and local agencies and throughout communities. The system was introduced in 2002 by Security Chief Tom Ridge (Reclaim Democracy, 2011). As is often the case when such controversial initiatives are brought forth, mixed views are common. Every U.S. citizen maintained a heightened sense of awareness and  fear in regard to terrorism. In that sense, this initiative allowed for both federal and local agencies to work together toward their goal of eliminating terrorist threats, and allowed a roadmap for daily operations. Threat levels were assigned to each suspect and federal agencies would act depending upon the level of the individual threat by implementing protective measures. Obviously, advocates of this plan argue that it leads to a safer environment because security agencies are adequately inf ormed. However, one must also consider if these measures protect citizens or instill fear in them. One cannot argue that technology and skill levels have not evolved. However, just because the technology and skill exists, does that mean that society is better when they are put into action? One could argue that it is arbitrary to label individuals based on a color code, what does it take for them to move to the next category? One must also be advised that the individuals in charge of determining the color coding system may have had their own political agenda. For example, raising the terror threat level to extreme on the one-year anniversary of 9/11 may have been necessary, but may have been a political move to gain confidence of the public? Some critics argue the system drummed up support for wars and additional federal powers. As security technology continues to evolve one document must not be overlooked, The Security Enhancement Act. While the document design was to improve homeland security and provide comfort to the citizenry, its consequences raise many questions. The act revoked portions of the Freedom of Information Act: in which society posses the right to achieve information pertaining to a friend or family member who is detained by the federal government for any action that can be considered to be terrorism. The American government can mandate whether or not they think citizens deserve information. Also, an individual could lose their citizenship upon â€Å"participating in or providing material support to a terrorist† (Reclaim Democracy, 2011). A vital element of this act is that it would allow the government to force citizens to submit to DNA samples if they are a suspected terrorist. Evolving technology provides a wealth of knowledge and understanding in regard to halting criminal activity. It provides methods that allow for quick response and action and can lead to a safer environment for people. However, one must consider the difference between technological advances and invasion of privacy. There is little doubt that getting a mouth swab for a DNA sample is  an effective method but it is certainly not perfect. It would be foolish not to consider that many DNA samples taint easily by not following procedures. This must be considered because imperfect humans are collecting the data. Also, because of the large amount of samples tested, at what point does the sample become outdated and need resubmission. If an individual submitted to an initial test, is it constitutional or ethical to mandate that they retest? There are constitutional amendments that are discussed and not disregarded because our nation suffered a tragedy. That tragedy must not be forgotten, but it is ill-advised to use one event as a predictor of all future events. That is why law enforcement must be careful when they seek to predict crime before it occurs. If the crime does not occur taxpayer funds go to waste. There is a fine line between protecting society and intruding upon its citizens. There must be awareness that while technology has advanced and aided society, the tests are still administered by humans who may serve his or her own needs over that of society. No matter how far individuals evolve technologically, society must proceed with caution because society may never be able to measure the intent of those operating the equipment. Evolving technology advancements and the future of crime fighting does not come without a fight. There are many individuals who question the intent of ethics of using proactive crime fighting methods. For instance, some individuals may feel that their rights are violated with the use of DNA, the government having access to personal information, and wide databases of information that have the chance of being hacked. It is not the intent of the government to have technology used against society; however, it is possible. Different groups and organizations claim that the use of advanced technology is just the beginning of a new conspiracy act. It is not only the concerned citizens of the United States who struggle with the openness of private information but also international groups as well as policy makers. It is thought that as technology advances policymakers will have to go the extra step to be proactive in the different inventions and programs to cheat or confuse technological advancements. According to Schmalleger (2012) â€Å"Opposing ideological lines have divided our efforts to develop comprehensive anticrime programs. Deep fissures in our social fabric have contributed to conflicting attitudes about crime and its control.† Countries that pride themselves in advanced technology, feared by other  nations. Just as the Bush administrations proved, technological warfare is on the bri nk of mass destructive devices (National Crime Prevention Council, 2012). While many individuals use technology as a way to prevent crime, some countries may ultimately use technology for total destruction. Whether society is fighting cybercrimes, using technology to fight future crimes, using technological advancements to predict crime, or allowing technology to lead the efforts of policymakers, technology has proved to be an advancement that does not come without deficits. Technology can make or break a country, but it can also divide nations and leave room for doubt. As technology advances, the prevention of crimes must also advance. It is not enough to assume that technological programs and breakthroughs will be enough to control crime. Crime control taken seriously and proactive steps taken to keep each breakthrough safe and ethical will wreak many benefits. In conclusion, law enforcement agencies are pointing in the positive direction for combating future crimes. The advancement of technological equipment in law enforcement is designed to enhance communication in aspects of imagery, and audio. Law enforcement agencies are already utilizing advanced imagery to resurrect a crime scene. The resurrection of a crime scene could possibly yield elaborate information leading to the apprehension of the offender. The overall perception in law enforcement will continue to be the same philosophy to apprehend alleged criminals. Technology aids local law enforcement officials in community policing, with surveillance placed in social common areas in aspiration to deter crime; too also act as a witness to committed crimes in the radius view of the camera. Law enforcement agencies will continue to strive for improvements in combat ing crime. References CBC News, (2013). New Apple Iphone Pushes Biometrics into the Mainstream. Retrieved from: http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/new-apple-iphone-pushes-biometrics-into-the-mainstream-1.1702041 Department of Homeland Security, (2013). Combating Cyber-Crime. Retrieved from: http://www.dhs.gov/combat-cyber-crime Legal Match, (2013). Mandatory DNA Sampling. Retrieved from: http://www.legalmatch.com/law-library/article/mandatory-dna-sampling-in-a-cri

Muslim Empires Essay

The Ottoman Turks consisted of Turkic-speaking nomadic people who had spread westward from Central Asia in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries. They were located in the northwestern corner of the peninsula, which allowed them to expand westward and eventually take over empires between the Mediterranean and the Black Seas. The sultan was the supreme authority in both a political and a military sense. Administrative and military power were centralized under the bey, who was only a tribal leader, tribal law was before Muslim law. The Ottoman authorities were Sunni Muslims. The sultan assigned duties to a supreme religious authority, who then maintained a system of schools to educate Muslims. There were some who believed in Sufism or other doctrines, but the government allowed it as long as they were still loyal to the empire. Non-Muslims had to pay a head tax since they were exempt from military service. The Ottoman Empire was divided into four main occupational groups: peasants, artisans, merchants, and pastoral people. Shah Ismail founded the Safavid Dynasty. The Safavids was a mixed society like the Ottoman Empire; majority of the population were Iranian. They used the Shi’ite faith, and Shi’ism was declared the state religion. Like the Ottoman’s sultan, the Safavids had their shahs who would check up on their people. This empire was not as wealthy as the Ottomans and the Mughals. Their greatest area of productivity was in textiles. The founder of the Mughal Dynasty is known as Babur. Ruling of the dynasty was passed down from Babur to his son, Humayun, and then to his grandson, Akbar. As emperor, Akbar didn’t just focus on the views of Muslim but also gave Christian views a chance. He later formed a new type of worship called the Divine Faith, which combined characteristics of different religions. He believed in having a harmonious society, which meant each individual and group would play their assigned role and contribute their part to society. This dynasty was the last of the great traditional Indian dynasties. All three of the empires were Muslim, and they all displayed an impressive capacity to create and run a large empire. The Muslim World was protected by the military and political abilities of these empires. Unlike their European counterparts, these empires continued to thrive.

Write about play Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Write about play - Essay Example Mama is scheduled to get the pension amount, and every member of the family has their own dreams, of what to make of it. As the play progresses, Ruth discovers she is pregnant, but decides upon aborting the baby, because of their financial condition. Beneatha is inclined towards Joseph Asagai, her African friend and rejects the proposal of George Murchison. Walter loses $6,500 that he gave his friend to start the liquor shop business. Mama zeroes in on the house to buy and pays the down payment. However, the family receives a threat from the all-white neighbours, as they do not want them to move in. The end of the play sees the family all set to move in and Beneatha accepting Asagai's proposal. 2. Structure, using Remembrance. Page 157 (bottom) Follow the exercise as written for A Raisin in the Sun.Reread at least one of the scenes we have presented, noting moments when the characters are engaged basically in remembrance. Then write a paragraph in which you make and support a claim about the extent to which the scene is concerned with the past rather than with the present or future. When Mama talks about her dream, she slips into the past, wherein she painfully recounts the dream her husband and she shared---to move into a beautiful house of their dreams. This is one instance where she moves to the past. She describes her husband's dream of owning a house, and asserts that it is her dream now----to fulfill her husband's. This dream of hers is more concerned with the past than of the present and the future, because of the sheer feasibility factor. Towards the end of the play, we do see the family sticking to their decision to move into the new house, however, amid threat and scathing hatred and hear. 3. Character Development. Page 159 Follow the exercise as written except choose a scene from A Raisin in the Sun. This paragraph will probably be longer than others, but you do not have to write an informal essay as indicated by the writing prompt. Choose one of the scenes we have excerpted, and write a brief, informal essay in which you examine the scene for signs that either or both of the characters will eventually change. In my opinion, the scene that involves Walter Lee talking about investing money in business and convincing his family about giving him a part of the pension money t get into liquor business with his friend is one that shows some signs that the character of Walter Lee is a round character. His character is one that exhibits signs of change, though the play does not go on into the future, to prove that part. In the beginning, Walter is shown as a person who is a defiant husband and a belittling brother. He is someone who harbours dreams of making it as a businessman, though he is presently not too productive. He takes the step and invests part of the pension money in the liquor business his friend and he propose to begin. However his friend runs off with the money and Walter loses the amount. Towards the end of the play, Walter transforms in a man, by refusing to quit moving into the all-white neighbourhood and thereby, shattering his Mama's dreams. He stands up for what the family believes in and refuses to give in. This reveals his strong mind-set and

History before 1877 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

History before 1877 - Essay Example However, the heavy taxation established American Revolution and resistance. Many British subjects opposed the heavy taxation laws on American colonies due to the inherent burden experienced by the latter. The consequent effects of heavy taxation initiated the existing debate, caused resistance and revolution of American colonies. The main fundamental rationale why American colonies objected acts established by the British government relates to their expensiveness and unfair policies. Taxes on sugar products and policies including Molasses Act were too expensive and unbearable to British subjects. Moreover, the court trial systems o the British government had become corrupt and could charge Americans wrongly for smuggling sugar. Massacre refers to brutal and indiscriminate slaughter of individuals or violet and deliberate killing of a large number of people. Though Boston massacre did not involve a large number of persons but five individuals, it stills stands as a massacre mainly because of its indiscriminate and brutal manner. It was a cold-blooded massacre accomplished without prior judgment. The soldiers acted in self-defense killing three Americans instantly and wounding others. Self-defense of the soldiers after being insulted and abused by rioting Americans proved their innocence in the existing courts. The modern court systems seek for prevalence of justice for all citizens in authority and civilians. The legal systems underscore inhumane acts and consequently punish it. Similarly, the ancient court as shown during Boston massacre case sought for prevalence of justice (Preston 1). The court’s case left a legacy of justice for the civil servants including soldiers. However, it increased the debate of citizens’ legal defense and human rights activism against brutal killing of demonstrating

New Hire Education Tool Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

New Hire Education Tool - Assignment Example Main areas of work include concept image and principles to maintain evidence-based culture in health care, research and education. By the analysis of patient data, nurses are able to create interventions that greatly improve the patients overall health (Saba, 2005). The main goal of nursing informatics and quality data management is the creation of a competent information management system that can readily accumulate and retrieve data that is related to the daily manner of a nurses work. Creating a system like this is important so that a nurse in a certain the country or world can easily access pertinent information that may have been accumulated in a far-away workplace. It is the liability of nursing informatics practitioners to expand these systems using the most recent information and computer technologies available. Nurses and other medical officers usually learn through personal experiences. Nevertheless, these medical professionals can also become skilled through the experiences of other individuals in their field. On a daily basis in thousands of diverse settings and scenarios, including medical clinics, doctors offices and hospitals, nurses encounter situations and setups they may not have encountered before. However, with the counsel and advice of those around them, they discover ways to deal with the issue and move on. By shortly documenting the condition, the explanation they chose and the decisive outcome and by documenting the information electronically, they make a road map that others in the field of medicine can pursue when they encounter parallel situations (Akay, 2001). Since the largest part, if not all, of the data and information produced in the field of nursing is delicate and sensitive, specifically to the degree that it includes data and information about exact patients, the expansion of nursing informatics systems is

Historical and political perspectives Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Historical and political perspectives - Essay Example , and it became clear that further action was necessary to ensure that the mandate to protect the rights and autonomy of disabled children was not impeding the realistic delivery of a personal understanding of their unique needs and potential. The CAF was one of several initiatives taken in response to widespread doubt regarding the efficacy of the Acts and provided a nationwide model of expectation and practice (Pithouse, 2006). Together, these two changes in national policy have turned the tide for the education of children with special educational needs. The SEN Code of Practice 2001 recommended a graduated distribution of nationwide change in the areas of assessment and inclusion in the mainstream schools. Thereafter, with the emphasis on building bridges between schools, a firm foundation was laid for the CAF 2005. Specifically, the CAF 2005 established a database of information for ascertaining with the special needs of children and standardized related expectations and recommended practices (â€Å"Behaviour and Individual Differences†, 2010). The function of CAF 2005 in addressing the shortcomings of the SEN 2001 Act was never explicitly acknowledged, but was rather a generalized reinforcement of a number of educational reforms. The official purposes focused upon children with an impaired â€Å"opportunity of achieving or maintaining a reasonable standard of health or development† (Pithouse, 2006, 201). Thus, by combining methodological recommendations for focus and economy, the CAF proposes educational change in a multi-faceted and complex manner (Pithouse, 2006). From the above discussion, it is evident that the CAF 2005 was an incremental approach over the objectives established under the 2001 SEN act. While the SEN 2001 act provides legal rights to disabled students, the CAF 2005 focuses more on an integrated approach towards assessing the needs of children and young people. Thus, the latter facilitates a wholesome strategy towards reaching a wider

Innovation 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6000 words

Innovation 2 - Essay Example In light of all the approaches presented in this literature review pertaining to the usefulness of customer knowledge in defining the Key Performance Indicators for any organization, it can be rightly stated that in contemporary time the reliance upon closed innovation process has become adequate and thus is obsolete, because of the major requirements of this process which can not be fulfilled in the contemporary era of increased globalization. Therefore, incorporation of the open innovation process is not only essential but also necessary in order to succeed and progress. Within this process, customers play a significant role on every step of the product development process, and their immense contribution could not be ignored, since they are the end users thus the utilization of their knowledge could spell success for the firm if it is handled appropriately. This paper makes a conclusion that with this the KPIs of the organization have to be restructured into more qualitative tools in order to account for different intricate and complex sources of knowledge base. When these are properly restructured and evaluated it leaves the organization with the dilemma of solving the issue of lost intellectual property, thus proposing that the outside-in method of open innovation should be used and external sources should be used for commercialization once the idea has been licensed, in order to ensure protection of Intellectual Property and also effectiveness in marketing.

Is Rim Destined to eventually Fail Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Is Rim Destined to eventually Fail - Essay Example The growth is witnessed in terms of output, staffing and the manufacturing infrastructure. The consistent increase in volume of the company’s products ensures its competitiveness in the marketplace by confirming that the products it supplies are market-friendly and adequate to the ever-increasing number of customers. The increase in production is fueled by the adequacy of staff. Adequate staff ensure that work is concluded on time hence meeting the company deadlines. Manufacturing infrastructure on the other hand facilitates invention and innovation resulting in originality of the company products (Palmatier & Crum, 2003). Externally, there is the ever-rising pressure from the rapidly expanding consumer base; RIM products experience a short lifecycle. Therefore, they have extended manufacturing contracts to likeminded firms to help them in production to meet the ever-rising customer demands. This has extended the decision making chain resulting in complexity when it comes to market efficiency and decision-making in terms of enhancing supply chains. The software makeup of the organization is also not up to the task prompting the implementation of a decision support system for the company to ensure it continues its operations successfully (Chopra & Meindl, 2001). In the recent past RIM has been quite successful and because of this success a crop of challenges have come up threatening the success of the corporation. The company introduced seven new models of their products within the last 18 months. The challenge with these products is their shortened lifecycle that has reduced further from 2 years to a mere 1 year. Reports show that the company’s product portfolio has become very complex ranging from 18 to 100 possible end combinations of the models with only seven lines of products. This has the challenge of easily creating what we call an

Multinational Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Multinational - Essay Example This is why the biggest MNCs are all publicly owned corporations (Gerard, 2013). Some of the top 20 MNCs are rated in terms of revenues they generate. As figures indicate, majority of the biggest corporations are in the oil industry-no wonder, the constant increase in the prices of oil. However, out of top 10 corporations, some are in the automotive industry and consequently big oil consumers. The only retailer in the MNCs is Wal-Mart and this shows just how the oil industry is big business. Most of the fortune 500 companies are MNCs and majority of them are located or domiciled in the US, followed by China then Japan. Other countries such as France, Britain come trailing. MNCs must come up with systems and strategies so as to achieve all or some of their multinational business operations (John & Praveen, 2014). The globalizing economy is a constantly changing (however, not always stable) environment for doing business. Trade barriers have been falling and in the 1st 10 years of the 21st century, world trade amongst nations in goods and services developed quickly than domestic production. This means there is free flow of money across the borders of most countries, permitting corporations to look for the best financing rates-and at the same time letting investors seek for the best possible returns-anywhere worldwide. All of these procedures constitute what is referred to as globalization-a trend that has seen world economies become greatly interlinked and borderless. Corporations are no longer limited by their domestic borders and may operate any type of business activity any place in the world. Thus to corporations, globalization means that they are most likely to source for their raw materials everywhere, do research and development everywhere and compete anywhere while producing their pro ducts at any given place in the world. Globalization, however has come with its own challenges and is not a standardized evolutionary process, meaning that not all

Eric Schmidt Google Ceo Essay Example for Free

Eric Schmidt Google Ceo Essay Born April 27, 1955 in the United States capital, Washington D. C. Dr. Eric Emerson Schmidt spent most of his early childhood in Northern Virginia, and Italy, where his father taught at John Hopkins in Bologna. After only two short years, spent during his third and fourth grade, while overseas, by 1965 he was relocated back to the United States, in Blacksburg, Virginia, where his father was appointed chairman of the Department of Economics at Virginia Tech. As a young boy, Schmidt was very technically adept, spending most of his time dissembling and reassembling things. At the ripe age of fifteen, while he attended Yorktown High School, he got his first exposure to computing, utilizing the school’s time-shared terminal on an ASR-33 teletype machine. His father had been so impressed that he rented his very own terminal at home, where Schmidt continued working for the school, rewriting software, which at that time consisted of only tape with punched holes. Schmidt hadn’t always been interested in computers or electronics, which is actually what, led him to apply at one of the top Ivy League institutes, Princeton University. After just barely being missed by the Vietnam War draft, which later played a major role in his political views, he decided to skip a grade, so he could pursue a career in architecture. It was during his senior year at Yorktown that he discovered his true calling, which led him into the field of engineering. After graduating he had considered both MIT and Princeton, but in 1972, he applied to the Jersey based University. Four years later, in the summer of 1976, Schmidt graduated, earning a Bachelor Degree of Engineering. After, Schmidt wanted to move to a warmer climate, such as California, which was partly due to his newly established position at Bell Labs, whom at the time were responsible for inventing UNIX. Schmidt also chose Northern California so he could attend Berkeley University, for their highly regarded computer science program. As his education and experience progressed, he also worked at Zilog, and a part time professor position, teaching at Stanford Business School. During his time at Berkeley, he obtained his Master Degree in Science. It was also there that he worked with some of the greatest minds such as Bill Joy, lead designer that wrote the code that allowed UNIX to operate on an architecture dubbed ARPANET, which essentially was the defining moment the Internet was born. Later in 1997, he moved on to Novell, where his experience and business savvy landed him the position of CEO. A position he held until his departure in 2001, after an apparent disagreement over an acquisition of the Cambridge Technology Partner. Shortly after his resignation Schmidt was interviewed by Google founders, Larry Page and Sergey Brin, which they were so impressed that they offered him a position as chairman of the board of directors in March 2001. But, by August of the same year he was promoted as the company’s new CEO, where he has held his title ever since. At first, Schmidt played a dominant role, overseeing new technology and development, which he soon discovered the true potential of what Google could become. Since his arrival, Google has had such successes as Gmail, Google Wave, Android, and Google AdSense, which also led to the acquisition of the online video website YouTube. Eric Schmidt utilizes a business management model known as the 70/20/10 model. What this model states is that 70% of time should be dedicated to core business tasks, 20% of time should be dedicated to projects related to the core business, 10% of time should be dedicated to projects unrelated to the core business. Although credit for this concept does not go to Schmidt, it goes to Michael M.  Lombardo and Robert W. Eichinger who created this model. According to Lombardo and Eichinger (1996) â€Å"The concept states that development typically begins with realization of a need and motivation to do something about it, and that a blend of different learning approaches in concert can provide powerful learning. Lombardo and Eichinger stated that the odds are that developments will be about 70% from on-the-job experiences, tasks, and problem solving. About 20% from feedback and from working around good or bad examples of the need. About 10% from courses and reading. †(Wikipedia). Along with the 70/20/10 model, I think that Schmidt also applies an administrative management approach, as well as a theory y approach. According to Jones and George (2011) administrative management is â€Å"the study of how to create an organizational structure and control system that leads to high efficiency and effectiveness. They go onto state that theory y is â€Å" a set of positive assumptions about workers that leads to the conclusion that a manager’s task is to create a work setting that encourages commitment to organizational goals and provides opportunities for workers to be imaginative and to exercise initiative and self-direction†(p. 9,p. 59). The 70/20/10 model creates the structure, organization, and control system that leads to efficiency and effectiveness by establishing specific guidelines on how time should be spent. I think a great example of Schmidt utilizing theory y is the pay cut he gave himself. Eric Schmidt took his annual pay down to $1 for the entire year, and didn’t give allow Google to pay him an annual bonus. Instead he used the money to give other senior executives a $75K pay raise, and also an annual bonus raise. I think this sends a strong message throughout the company that the CEO is going to take care of his own. If you think about Google today, it’s thought of as a catch phrase, â€Å"Google it† is something that is commonly used today. Google has become the premier online search engine, as well as online email. They have made great advancements in android technology, and Google is now a part of every smart phone made. This growth and success is attributed to Eric Schmidt who took over as Google CEO in 2001. In 2007 Schmidt was ranked 1st out of 50 by PC world for being the most important person on the web. In 2009 Schmidt was considered a Top Gun CEO by Brendan Wood International advisory agency. It is clear through his personal success and professional success that Eric Schmidt was indeed one the top CEO’s in the world. In 2011 Schmidt stepped down as CEO of Google, he now serves as the Executive Chairman to the company, and an advisor to the Google co-founders.

Fiction and Literary Works Essay Example for Free

Fiction and Literary Works Essay With that said, it is important to remember that all literary works cannot always be easily classified into a single genre. Moreover, literary works which might be classified as belonging to one genre might possess many qualities more typical of other genres. For example, Shakespeare’s Macbeth is classified as drama, but in many respects takes the form of poetry. In other words, sometimes the differences between categories like drama, poetry, and the short story are not so easily defined. Often a short story might contain poetic or dramatic qualities, or a poem might include narrative and dramatic features. In your post, summarize the major similarities and differences between the forms of drama, poetry, and the short story. Demonstrate your ideas with textual examples from the course readings. In your response, include at least one example of each literary form. If you wish, you may also point to examples which indicate the blurring of literary genres (e. g. , the poetic qualities of Macbeth or the dramatic elements of Gift of the Magi). There are so much to say when it comes to similarities with drama, poetry and a short story. Personally I see that all three have some subliminal message for the audience whether it is lessons learn or an experience personal to the writer. In literary perspectives, like mentioned above, sometimes a poem or short story can merge with another genre such as drama. An example of a short story that can be drama is perhaps â€Å"The Necklace† because the story is about a lady who borrows and loses something her friend lent her and went through so much trouble to replace it instead of coming clean with the friend. A drama is meant to have characters that perform and we see this is a short story known as â€Å"I’m Going† where we see the characters clearly speaking and also we get narrative information to help the audience understand the plot and setting. Poetry is written in different formats or rhythms but can also tell a story but does not always have a plot. All have some sort of tone to set the seriousness or relax humor of the literary work. â€Å"My Papa’s Waltz† is a poem which tells a story of a father and son yet there are also dramatic features as the story is told.

Accounting Essays Tax Evasion Popularity

Accounting Essays Tax Evasion Popularity Tax evasion is a national pastime that is growing ever more popular. Nick Montague defines taxation as the means by which a civilised society performs that sometimes-uncivil task of taking money from one group in order to give it to another. This definition highlights an important purpose served by taxes. As it is already known, that taxes are a fiscal policy instrument used by the government to achieve broad macroeconomic goals. Generally speaking, taxes are a means used by the government to provide its residents with amenities and facilities like hospitals, safety and education. Thus, any shortage in revenue means that the people wouldnt be able to avail the benefits. From this perspective, as law-abiding citizens, it is imperative for people and corporations to pay taxes. Despite, this common knowledge, tax evasion is prevalent in the society, even worse, individuals and corporations go through great length to devise tactics of evading taxes. The main reason why individuals and corporations engage in tax evasion activities is that it increases the level of disposable income and profits respectively. Tax evasion is defined as the failure to meet tax liabilities by illegal action, such as not declaring income. Needless to say tax evasion is a criminal offence. Prior to starting a discussion on tax evasion it would be essential to briefly highlight that in the UK, tax administration is divided between two departments of state, the Inland Revenue and Customs and Excise. The Inland Revenue administers Income Tax, Corporation Tax (on company profits), Capital Gains Tax, petroleum taxation (relating to oil exploration and extraction in the UK and surrounding waters) and Stamp Duties (e.g. on land transactions). The levying of VAT, tax on gambling and customs and excise duties is the responsibility of the Customs and Excise Department. In addition to these two revenue departments, local authorities levy the new Community Charge (poll tax) and the Department of Social Security is responsible for national insurance contributions. Often tax evasion is confused with tax avoidance. According to Denis Healey, former UK Chancellor of the Exchequer: The difference between tax avoidance and tax evasion is the hickness of a prison wall. This paper will aim to present an in depth analysis of why individuals/companies engage in tax evasion. It will also analyse whether the self-assessment system encourages or discourages tax evasion. And, finally the paper will conclude by evaluating the efforts made by the government to combat tax evasion. It must be highlighted that taxation is used for many other purposes than raising revenue. Some writers have argued that the purpose of taxation can also be seen as an instrument of economic and social policy to influence behaviour. In other words, it can therefore be the intention of the tax that it is avoided. For example, it has been argued that higher taxes on alcoholic drinks (Cook and Moore, 1994, Irving and Sims, 1993) and tobacco (Viscusi, 1994) would reduce the consumption of those products and lead to improvements in the health of the population. In the UK, Inland Revenue has, traditionally, had a deferential approach towards income. With the introduction of self-assessment system from 1996/7 there has been a movement away from that stance in recent years. Evasion of taxes Tax evasion analysis typically assumes that evasion involves individual taxpayers responding to some given policies. However, evading taxes could require the collaboration of at least two taxpayers. Detection depends on the costly avoidance activities of both transacting partners. An increase in sanctions leads to a direct increase in the expected cost of a transaction in the illegal sector, but it may also increase the incentive for the partners to cooperate in avoiding detection. The total cost of transacting in the illegal sector can fall, and tax evasion may increase. Most countries tend to follow a progressive taxation system, more the income more tax would be levied. From this perspective it might appear that it is unfair for the government to levy more taxes on individuals/companies for generating more income for the economy and themselves. However, it must be a noted that in addition to boosting the economy, it is governments responsibility to think about economic development and welfare of everyone. They have to balance economic growth and economic development. This concept has been debated and the viewpoint of unfairness of the tax system has led parties to evade them, in other words, discovering ways and means of not paying the dues to the government. Research studies conducted to find out the extent of the UK black market economy indicate that it has increased. The number of unincorporated business accounts and company accounts received annually by the Inland Revenue have increased from 2m to 2.25 million and from under 600,000 to nearly 700,000 respectively between 1984/85 and 1988/89 alone (Inland Revenue, 131st Annual Report, 1989). Surveys conducted by Brown, Levin, Rosa and Ulph (1984) concluded that about 5% of workers in Britain held two or more jobs and that the income tax lost from second job tax evasion probably amounted to around 1.1% of income tax receipts or 0.3% of national income. Their survey excluded evasion by persons who have only one job (which includes large numbers of the self employed), Capital Gains Tax and VAT evasion, and evasion of tax by companies. In response to deterring people from engaging in tax evasion, Inland Revenue introduced the self-assessment system, very simply, is a way of working out and paying tax. As required by the Inland Revenue (IR), self-employed people, company directors, minister of religion are required to fill up the self-assessment form at the end of every tax year. Supporting documents are provided to make it easier for the people to fill up the form and submit it. With the improvement in technology, IR offers business services for employers, individuals, contractors, companies and agents, option to fill up the forms online, which ensures automatic tax calculation, quicker repayment, and online acknowledgement which is safe and secure. Thus, IR is removing any possibility of hassle and introducing the convenience factor to make people comply with the tax requirements. Many initiatives have been taken to combat tax evasion. In the UK, for instance, attempts are being made to increase co-operation between the Inland Revenue and Customs and Excise. This has involved joint policy consultation and improvements in exchanging information. One particular initiative has been to set up a joint unit to provide a single source of information and advice for businesses facing financial difficulties and who wish to enter into voluntary arrangements. A step in this direction has been that of the European Union Savings Directive. It aims to counter cross border tax evasion by collecting and exchanging information about foreign resident individuals receiving savings income outside their resident state. The Government believes that exchange of information between tax authorities is the best way to ensure that individuals pay the right amount of tax on cross-border income from savings. The Government therefore supports the Directive, the ultimate aim of which is effective taxation by exchange of information. The above is a major step towards decreasing evasion of tax. The above highlights the importance of transparency in accounts and benefits of sharing information across the countries. Introducing VAT was also an attempt towards tax harmonisation and making it more difficult for companies to evade tax. The recent scandals of Enron and Parmalat have highlighted the importance of having transparency. VAT was introduced to combat cheating, smuggling and minimise tax evasion. The same principle was behind harmonising VAT in the EU one of the advantages was the limited possibility for fraud in the supply chain. However, it was found that VAT system was used to systematically defraud tax administrations. Despite the efforts made to minimise tax evasion, fraudsters have detected the inherent weaknesses that exist in the controls exercised and have been exploiting those weaknesses for their own financial gain. It was found that with the introduction of the VAT and intrastate system, compliance costs had been reduced by approximately two-thirds. It is a known fact that taxes in any form, whether direct or indirect, is a source of revenue for the government. Government tends to use tax money either from individuals or businesses to fund various country development projects and work towards providing a better living condition to its citizens. While this is an idealistic picture about the motive of the government, in reality, people tend to evade taxes for many reasons. It has been a subject of constant debate to find out the best measure or basis for taxation and the latest taxation system for indirect tax is the consumption base. It has been argued that it would more suitable to charge taxes based on the consumption made. VAT is the tax system which follows the above mentioned tax base. The purpose was not only to curb tax evasion but also be an efficient model for taxation. The European model of the VAT system has been applauded and adopted by many countries as it is a common belief that VAT system based on the European mode l provides least possible way of evading tax because it has a system of invoicing which helps in establishing an audit trail. Authors like Cnossen have listed the various advantages associated with the following the VAT system. Amongst other things, to ensure that tax evasion is minimised, the government needs to look into improving tax compliance. The following pointers were suggested to improve tax compliance: Training employees so that they have an understanding of the entire system of tax administration. There should be better publicity about how the tax system works, the benefits derived from complying with the tax system and how the IRS deals with abuses of the system. Making the procedure automatic to eliminate any possibility of reducing unscrupulous practice. Simplification and fairness is required because continuous changes and complexity in tax law have a negative effect on compliance. Also the law should be applied consistently. Organisational structure should be arranged so that taxpayers issues or problems can be resolved through a single point of contact. There is also a need for specialisation so that expertise of particular industries may be developed to improve dealings with taxpayers and there should be better customer service. Better and increased cooperation with state, local and foreign governments is required to tackle the problem. More assistance should be provided for small businesses to help them comply and increase their awareness levels. Coordination of compliance efforts would be required and incentives must be provided when people comply and penalties must be imposed when people evade taxes. A more organised approach to influence legislation A sense of responsibility must be inculcated in the people towards taxes. It is easier to get something done when people take responsibility towards it. Inland Revenue faces problems to tackle the problem due to shortage in trained tax inspectors, reflecting the departments more general difficulty in recruiting and retaining staff. Research studies conducted in this area have indicated that people tend to move towards the private sector where pay and conditions are perceived to be better. The department believes that the situation can only improve when there is more political commitment in Government to tackling evasion, supported by the allocation of the necessary resources to pay inspectors competitive salaries. Conclusion In summary it can be said that though steps have been take to minimise tax evasion yet it exists and continues to exist. Despite the efforts made towards curbing it, there will always be elements in the society who would come up with mechanisms to defeat the system. The challenge therefore lies in keeping up the efforts to minimise tax evasion. As individuals taxes must be paid accurately and as corporations ethical business practices would ensure that illegal activities like tax evasion could be kept at bay. Thus in conclusion it can be said that even though tax evasion appears to be a national pastime that is growing ever popular, measures are being devised to combat it. BIBLIOGRAPHY Melville, A. Taxation: Finance Act 2004, 10th Edition, (2004), Financial Times, Prentice Hall, London El-Agraa, A.M., The European Union Economics and Policies, (2001), Sixth Edition, Prentice Hall. Gwartney, J.D., Stroup, R.L., and Sobel, Russell, S. Economics Public and Private Choice, (2000), Ninth edition, Dryden Press JOURNALS AND ARTCILES Agha, A. and Haughton, J. (1996), Designing VAT Systems: Some Efficiency Considerations, The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 78 (2) pp 303-308 Joumard, I. (2001), Tax Systems in European Union Countries, OECD Working papers ECO/WKP(2001)27 Nam, C.W., Parsche, R. and Schaden, B. (2001), Measurement of Value Added Tax Evasion in Selected EU countries on the basis of National Accounts Data, CESInfo Working Papers 431. Ohsawa, Yoshiaki (2003), A Spatial tax harmonisation model, European Economic Review 47, pp 443-459 Scabrosetti, S. (2002), Tax System and Reforms in Europe: France, Societa Italiana di economica pubblica, Working papers 186/2002 Shoup, C.S. (1957), Some distinguishing characteristics of the British, French, and United States Public Finance System, American Economic Review, Vol. 47 (2) pp 187-197 Verwaal, E. and Cnossen, S (2002), Europes new border taxes, JCMS Vol. 40 (2), pp 309-330 Entrepreneurship and Growth: Tax Issues, (2002) Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry. OECD. Indirect Tax Treatment of Financial Services and Instruments, (1998), Report of the OECD

Title: Down Ass Bitch :: essays research papers

Artist: Ja Rule Album: Pain is Love Title: Down Ass Bitch feat. Charli Baltimore (Ja Rule - talking) Ja Rule, Chuck B-more Every thug needs a lady And every thug needs a down ass bitch, huh, feel me Every thug needs a lady Baby I'm convinced, you my down ass bitch (Chorus - Ja Rule) Baby say yeah, (baby say yeah) If you'd lie for me, like you lovin me Baby say yeah, (baby say yeah) If you'd die for me, like you cry for me Baby say yeah, (baby say yeah) If you'd kill for me, like you comfort me Baby say yeah, (baby say yeah) Girl I'm convinced, you're my down ass bitch (Ja Rule) Uh I know that you're lovin me, 'cause you thug with me, who bust slugs for me? My baby Who gon' kill for you, like I comfort you, who else but the Rule? You feel me Girl when we connect the dots we hit the spot Twin Benz's, you ride hard, I ride drop And to make it better, baby got the nina' Beretta tucked low And I'm two cars back with the four-four And it freaks you out, on your momma's couch, that's what us thugs be 'bout You know me And when I pray for love, baby pray for us, who celebrates the thugs? My lady Got me seekin capital game when I spit sixteen Whether bars or sixteens in the doors of cars A star is born In the hood, made a name live on, R-U-L-E, ladies, feel me (Chorus) (Charli Baltimore) Now I'm show you blood or love, there's no belly you bounce from Blow sellin, dough amounts to no tellin There'll be no tellin, snitches get it back Those gats to your backs for my boy What part of the game is that, huh? Niggas and they feelings 'cause I handle your dealings, keep your name in tact My fame's in tact so cops won't know what it's hittin for Now hoes wanna know what you shittin for 'Cause I'm your bitch, the Bonnie to your Clyde It's mental, mash your enemies, we out in the rental I'm your bitch, niggas run up on ya, shift ya lungs, who's your organ donor? What they know about, extreme meausures I'm a ride with you And my baby three-eighty at my side And we lock the town, I'm as down as any thug My love, they gotta take us in blood, what (Chorus) (Ja Rule) You could die from love, at any given time I could die from slugs But that's what this life is capable of The death and the life of a bitch and a thug, is what I'm scared of But God up in Heaven who ain't afraid to, tuck the toast in the Escalade Title: Down Ass Bitch :: essays research papers Artist: Ja Rule Album: Pain is Love Title: Down Ass Bitch feat. Charli Baltimore (Ja Rule - talking) Ja Rule, Chuck B-more Every thug needs a lady And every thug needs a down ass bitch, huh, feel me Every thug needs a lady Baby I'm convinced, you my down ass bitch (Chorus - Ja Rule) Baby say yeah, (baby say yeah) If you'd lie for me, like you lovin me Baby say yeah, (baby say yeah) If you'd die for me, like you cry for me Baby say yeah, (baby say yeah) If you'd kill for me, like you comfort me Baby say yeah, (baby say yeah) Girl I'm convinced, you're my down ass bitch (Ja Rule) Uh I know that you're lovin me, 'cause you thug with me, who bust slugs for me? My baby Who gon' kill for you, like I comfort you, who else but the Rule? You feel me Girl when we connect the dots we hit the spot Twin Benz's, you ride hard, I ride drop And to make it better, baby got the nina' Beretta tucked low And I'm two cars back with the four-four And it freaks you out, on your momma's couch, that's what us thugs be 'bout You know me And when I pray for love, baby pray for us, who celebrates the thugs? My lady Got me seekin capital game when I spit sixteen Whether bars or sixteens in the doors of cars A star is born In the hood, made a name live on, R-U-L-E, ladies, feel me (Chorus) (Charli Baltimore) Now I'm show you blood or love, there's no belly you bounce from Blow sellin, dough amounts to no tellin There'll be no tellin, snitches get it back Those gats to your backs for my boy What part of the game is that, huh? Niggas and they feelings 'cause I handle your dealings, keep your name in tact My fame's in tact so cops won't know what it's hittin for Now hoes wanna know what you shittin for 'Cause I'm your bitch, the Bonnie to your Clyde It's mental, mash your enemies, we out in the rental I'm your bitch, niggas run up on ya, shift ya lungs, who's your organ donor? What they know about, extreme meausures I'm a ride with you And my baby three-eighty at my side And we lock the town, I'm as down as any thug My love, they gotta take us in blood, what (Chorus) (Ja Rule) You could die from love, at any given time I could die from slugs But that's what this life is capable of The death and the life of a bitch and a thug, is what I'm scared of But God up in Heaven who ain't afraid to, tuck the toast in the Escalade

The Dominican Republic, and its owner, Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Essay

The Dominican Republic, and its owner, Rafael Leonidas Trujillo All throughout the 20th century we can observe the marked presence of totalitarian regimes and governments in Latin America. Countries like Cuba, Chile, Brazil, Argentina, Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic all suffered under the merciless rule of dictators and military leaders. Yet the latter country, the Dominican Republic, experienced a unique variation of these popular dictatorships, one that in the eyes of the world of those times was great, but in the eyes of the Dominicans, was nothing short of deadly. Rafael Leonidas Trujillo, or â€Å"El Chivo†, controlled the people of the Dominican Republic in a manner that set him apart from the other leaders of that time. By controlling every aspect of the country’s economy, he controlled the people, by controlling each individual’s income and their jobs, he controlled their lives. (Sagas, 173) It is true that from the outside it may appear that the economy was getting better in the Dominican Republic, but the problem was that all of the enterprises and businesses were directly or indirectly owned and controlled by Trujillo himself, not the government. Building bridges, making better roads, and establishing monuments were Trujillo’s ideas as to how to make the Dominican Republic a better place. (de Besault, N/A) True that these things made the Republic more appealing and made transportation better, but the inhumane methods Trujillo employed to maintain his complete and utter control of the people completely ove rshadowed any positive things that he may have done. This previously inexistent economy is what allowed Trujillo to attain and strengthen his power in the Dominican Republic. Oddly enough, the same peo... ... In addition to being powerful, his ruthless murders made him a dangerous man too. This specific case in Latin American history comes to show how economic â€Å"stability† does not always mean happiness and wealth. The Dominican Republic’s economy was stable, but all the wealth belonged to one man, Trujillo. A Nation’s wealth in the hands of one man only means that the Nation’s safety and life-force also rest in his hands. Works Cited Bosch, Juan. Trujillo: Causas de una tirania sin ejemplo. Caracas: n.p., 1961. de Besault, Lawrence. President Trujillo: His work and the Dominican Republic. Santiago: Editorial El Diario, 1941. Ferreras, Ramon. Trujillo : 20 aà ±os despues. N.p.: n.p., 1981. Roorda, Eric. The Dicator Next Door. London: Duke UP, 1998. Sagas, Ernesto. The Dominican People: A Documentary History. Princeton: Markus Weiner, 2003.

Compromise of 1877 Essay -- essays papers

Compromise of 1877 African-Americans may sometimes wonder at the contradictory facts about their history presented in many standard history texts. These texts state that blacks were given the right to vote in 1870, yet the same texts will acknowledge that this right did not really exist for African-Americans until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. Similarly, the first public accommodation law was passed in 1875, but history shows that it took 91 years before it was acknowledged and African-Americans were allowed to the full benefits of citizenship.1 It is common knowledge that the American Civil War provided freedom and certain civil rights, including to right to vote, to the African-American population of the nineteenth-century. What is not generally known, and only very rarely acknowledged, is that after freeing the slaves held in the Southeastern portion of the U.S., the federal government abandoned these same African-Americans at the end of the Reconstruction period.2 The Republicans were losing their political clout. By agreeing to what has become known as the Compromise of 1877, the Republicans effectively abandoned the people they had fought so long to free. This was because this compromise between Democrats and Republicans effectively repealed the constitutional strides, which had been made thus far toward offering the black population of the U.S. equality.3 The passage of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution of the United States gave African-Americans recognized rights under the law. However, a national commitment to the civil and political rights of all U.S. citizens without regard to matters of race was destined to last less then a decade.4 There are certain historical facts, which have been lost in the public memory, as certain legends have taken the place of reality. In order to fully understand what happened, it is necessary to comprehend that the Northern states were far from being uniformly the champions of equal rights that is generally indicated by popular belief. By this understanding, that is that the abandonment of African-Americans did not constitute a drastic change of moral position for many people in the North, it is easier to understand their subsequent actions in ignoring the plight of African-Americans in the South after the Reconstruction era.5 An example of one to these overlook... ..., â€Å"The Forgotten Constitutional Moment,† Constitutional Commentary, No. 1 (Winter 1994): 121-22. 21. Tad Tuleja, American History in 100 Nutshells (New York: Fawcett Columbine Books, 1992), 163-64. 22. Tad Tuleja, American History in 100 Nutshells (New York: Fawcett Columbine Books, 1992), 164. 23. Tad Tuleja, American History in 100 Nutshells (New York: Fawcett Columbine Books, 1992), 164. Works Cited Byrd, Robert C. The Senate, 1789-1989: Addresses on the History of the US Senate, Vol. 1. (New York: Bernan Associates, 1989). Foner, Eric. A Short History of Reconstruction. (New York: Harper and Row, 1990). Foner, Eric and John A. Garraty. The Reader’s Companion to American History. (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1991). McConnell, Michael W. "The Forgotten Constitutional Moment," Constitutional Commentary, No. 1. (Winter 1994). Phillip, Mary-Christine. "Yesterday Once More: African-Americans Wonder If New Era Heralds," Black Issues in Higher Education. (July 1995). Stampp, Kenneth M. The Era of Reconstruction, 1865-1877. (New York: Vintage Books, 1965). Tuleja, Tad. American History in 100 Nutshells. (New York: Fawcett Columbine Books, 1992). Compromise of 1877 Essay -- essays papers Compromise of 1877 African-Americans may sometimes wonder at the contradictory facts about their history presented in many standard history texts. These texts state that blacks were given the right to vote in 1870, yet the same texts will acknowledge that this right did not really exist for African-Americans until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. Similarly, the first public accommodation law was passed in 1875, but history shows that it took 91 years before it was acknowledged and African-Americans were allowed to the full benefits of citizenship.1 It is common knowledge that the American Civil War provided freedom and certain civil rights, including to right to vote, to the African-American population of the nineteenth-century. What is not generally known, and only very rarely acknowledged, is that after freeing the slaves held in the Southeastern portion of the U.S., the federal government abandoned these same African-Americans at the end of the Reconstruction period.2 The Republicans were losing their political clout. By agreeing to what has become known as the Compromise of 1877, the Republicans effectively abandoned the people they had fought so long to free. This was because this compromise between Democrats and Republicans effectively repealed the constitutional strides, which had been made thus far toward offering the black population of the U.S. equality.3 The passage of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution of the United States gave African-Americans recognized rights under the law. However, a national commitment to the civil and political rights of all U.S. citizens without regard to matters of race was destined to last less then a decade.4 There are certain historical facts, which have been lost in the public memory, as certain legends have taken the place of reality. In order to fully understand what happened, it is necessary to comprehend that the Northern states were far from being uniformly the champions of equal rights that is generally indicated by popular belief. By this understanding, that is that the abandonment of African-Americans did not constitute a drastic change of moral position for many people in the North, it is easier to understand their subsequent actions in ignoring the plight of African-Americans in the South after the Reconstruction era.5 An example of one to these overlook... ..., â€Å"The Forgotten Constitutional Moment,† Constitutional Commentary, No. 1 (Winter 1994): 121-22. 21. Tad Tuleja, American History in 100 Nutshells (New York: Fawcett Columbine Books, 1992), 163-64. 22. Tad Tuleja, American History in 100 Nutshells (New York: Fawcett Columbine Books, 1992), 164. 23. Tad Tuleja, American History in 100 Nutshells (New York: Fawcett Columbine Books, 1992), 164. Works Cited Byrd, Robert C. The Senate, 1789-1989: Addresses on the History of the US Senate, Vol. 1. (New York: Bernan Associates, 1989). Foner, Eric. A Short History of Reconstruction. (New York: Harper and Row, 1990). Foner, Eric and John A. Garraty. The Reader’s Companion to American History. (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1991). McConnell, Michael W. "The Forgotten Constitutional Moment," Constitutional Commentary, No. 1. (Winter 1994). Phillip, Mary-Christine. "Yesterday Once More: African-Americans Wonder If New Era Heralds," Black Issues in Higher Education. (July 1995). Stampp, Kenneth M. The Era of Reconstruction, 1865-1877. (New York: Vintage Books, 1965). Tuleja, Tad. American History in 100 Nutshells. (New York: Fawcett Columbine Books, 1992).

Music as Social Commnetary

The end of the Reagan Administration is not generally known for political activism and yet during the highly conservative Reagan years, some of the biggest efforts of music to combat the problems of the world began. John Cougar Mellankamp wrote the album, â€Å"Rain on the Scarecrow† and began the Farm Aid concerts to draw attention to the disappearing American family far. Michael Jackson and the musical elite of the day wrote and performed, â€Å"We Are the World† and Sir Bob Geldof drew attention to the African famines with his multi-star performance and recording of â€Å"Do They Know It’s Christmas?† Into that political climate, singer/songwriter Jackson Browne wrote and released the song, â€Å"How Long? † on his â€Å"World in Motion† album released in 1989 (â€Å"Ontario Coalition Against Poverty† 1). Speculation runs high that Browne may have been directly addressing the issues of international poverty or may have been discussi ng the issue of Apartheid in South Africa, avery popular cause of the late 1980s. Browne, the German-born son of an American military photographer, had become well-known for his political activism.After writing for some of the biggest names in the music industry including The Byrds and The Eagles (Paris 1), Browne recorded his own music beginning in the mid-1970s and culminating with his hits â€Å"Running on Empty† and â€Å"The Load Out (Stay)†. Then, his formerly easy-going music turned into political statement after political statement. He organized a coalition of musicians against nuclear energy after the Three Mile Island accident and often wrote about politics, saying,† nothing is more personal than your political beliefs.† (Paris 1) But America of the late 1980s was in feel-good mode. The wall was coming down in Berlin, the Cold War at an end and the Soviet Union was crumbling. The album which featured â€Å"How Long† was the worst performanc e of Browne’s career, other than his debut album when nobody knew his name (Wade 1). The famine in Ethiopia and other parts of the world were big news, though largely ignored except for during feel-good relief efforts and homelessness in America was a huge issue as the Reagan era drove the divide between the haves and have nots even farther apart.Browne, who was critical of liberals and conservatives alike (Ward 1), wrote the song to call everyone out for their blithe acceptance of the arms race and huge military budgets. Others speculate that the song relates to the Anti-Apartheid efforts. The South African crisis was big news during the Reasgan administration with Congress enacting strict restriction on South African trade, beginning in 1986, and popular culture canonizing Nelson and Winnie Mandela.And that anti-Apartheid movement was important in popular culture. Lethal Weapon 2 (1989) highlighted the problems involving the race-based discrimination in South Africa the sam e year the song was released and the colonial system instituted by the Dutch did not end until years later. Sadly, however, the song seems largely misplaced in time, coming out in the first year of the presidency of George H. W. Bush when the world accepted that the arms race was over and social consciousness was beginning to take hold.It almost appears as though Browne missed the boat with â€Å"How Long† as he was critical of the military industrial complex which was already in the process of dismantling after the reunification of Germany and the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Furthermore, the song deals specifically with the issue of children and starvation, but did not serve to draw particular attention to the problem worldwide, possible due to the vagaries of the song. The vagaries of the song make it difficult to identify what social injustice in particular Browne hoped to address and that may have been his point.While asking in general â€Å"How Long? † peo ple were willing to tolerate social injustice around the world, Browne may have helped to draw attention to both the need for nuclear disarmament and the need to end Apartheid. We do know that it asks the listener to consider the children and their future. â€Å"How Long† begins with a verse describing the possibilities evident in a child’s face and asks the listener, presumably Americans and other citizens of the world, how long the child would survive if it were up to them (â€Å"How Long† Lines 1-8).The problem is that the children of the 1980s were not the flower-power generation of the 1960s and the subtly was lost. Asking â€Å"How long — would the child survive/How long — if it was up to you† was not the call to action needed in the late 1980s. The self-absorbed generation could easily just answer the question and ignore the call to action underneath the words. Indeed, there is no evidence that the song had any impact other than as a subtle reminder of what they saw daily on the news. In the second verse, Browne gets a little more direct with his indictment of the listener but still fails to call them to action.â€Å"When you think about the money spent On defense by a government And the weapons of destruction we've built We're so sure that we need And you think of the millions and millions That money could feed How long — can you hear someone crying How long — can you hear someone dying Before you ask yourself why? † (Browne, â€Å"How Long† Lines 9-16) Ultimately, Browne does a good job of pointing out the political and social issues of the time, but fails to take a stance on what should be done about it.There is a vague notion that the government should stop spending money on missile defense systems and nuclear weapons in favor of spending on social issues, but he never implores his audience to take action. Instead, the audience can simply agree that yes, it is a problem and then g o back to their own lives without interruption or any change in action. Perhaps the one place where Browne’s work might be considered effective is in his final verse, when he discusses the need to think of the globe differently than the blue and white and green image seen from space (Browne, â€Å"How Long†).Finally, he asks how long until we â€Å"have something to offer where the planet’s concerned? † (â€Å"Browne, â€Å"How Long† Lines 38-39) Though the song is generally accepted as an anti-military, pro-social reform ballad, these last lines may have been influenced by his relationship with environmental activist and actress Darryl Hannah and may allude to the idea that people need to take action with regard to the world’s environmental situation. In that way, it may have had some limited effect on public awareness about environmental issues.Realistically though, it appears that the only real effect of Browne’s work may have bee n on his career. Reviewer David Marsh, well-known for his commentary on rock music, put it this way. â€Å"This is one time Jackson Browne did his words profound justice as a singer — it's simply a great piece of singing, stark, angry, pained and yet aching more than anything else with a love that's proven yet again to be insufficient to hold a life together.The question while this music and the story unfold is not how the singer will survive — he's already told us that — but how the listener will keep his composure long enough to hear it through. † (Ward 1) The song may well have been a sign of the times and completely appropriate for the long view of history, but in the culture of the times, it was too passe, with not enough call for direct action.Still, just a few years later, Browne got his wish during the Clinton administration when the military industrial complex was largely dismantled, America’s standing army minimized and world concerns bro ught to the forefront of American consciousness. Apartheid also fell in the intervening years, coming to an end in 1994. By the time the song had its desired impact on spending priorities, the drought had shifted and the starving was in Rwanda and Darfur and Americans had moved on to another music form and again forgot the starving children.Just as Browne’s cry for justice came very late in the era of Apartheid, it came very early in the call for environmental activism and people missed its call to do the right thing and care for the children of the world. Works Cited Browne, Clyde Jackson. â€Å"How Long? † World in Motion, Elektra Records, 1989. Ontario Coalition Against Poverty, â€Å"Activism and protest song lyrics page† < http://www. ocap. ca/songs/howlong. html> December 5, 2007. Paris, Russ. â€Å"Jackson Browne: Biography†. , December 5, 2007. Ward, Michael.â€Å"Jackson Browne: the Artist behind the Words† http://media. www. versusmag. or g/media/storage/paper584/news/2003/10/22/Music/Jackson. Browne-547215. shtml>, December 5, 2007. How Long by Jackson Browne When you look into a child's face And you're seeing the human race And the endless possibilities there Where so much can come true And you think of the beautiful things A child can do How long — would the child survive How long — if it was up to you When you think about the money spent On defense by a government And the weapons of destruction we've built

Stock-Flow Trap in US Economy

The model used in analyzing the article is the Balance of payments model. This model determines payments from one particular country to all the others. It condenses all economic transactions that a country performs in a year. The country’s exports and imports of commodities may exist in forms of goods, services, financial capital, and transfers. This moulds the countries balance of payments. All transactions resulting to any payment or liabilities from debit holders and credit holders are indicated here. The calculation for the balance of payments involves the Current Account, derived from movement of goods and services; the capital account, consequent to capital transfers and the attainment and the discard of non-financial assets that failed to be produced; and the financial account, which accounts for movement of investments. This model involves the economic ideas found in the article like balances between investments both locally and internationally. It also involves the key reason for the high amount of critical stock of US. This model also touches the issue regarding dollar as a prime currency for both US and the world. However, to further explain the model and relate to the article of Eatwell and Taylor, the American Stock-flow Trap, we will need to define another macroeconomic concept, the liquidity trap. (Catherine) â€Å"When expected returns from investments in securities or real plant and equipment are low, investment falls, a recession begins, and cash holdings in banks rise. People and businesses then continue to hold cash because they expect spending and investment to be low. This is a self-fulfilling trap.†(Mike Moffatt) In the article, the stock-flow trap is the main subject for discussion. â€Å"The stock-flow trap happens when stock/flow ratios become large, players in the financial markets first become suspicious and then may very rapidly flee into liquid holdings as they sell all the liabilities of the economy in question.† (Eatwell and Taylor) The stock-flow trap creates the very foundations for liquidity trap to happen. This condition, as stated in the article, is also likely happen in stable economies like the US. During the 1980s budget deficit is $153 billion. This deficit gradually increases to $233 billion during the 1990s. At present, trade deficit still subsists in US economy. From 1980s, several administrations came out with plans to reduce budget deficit but these discrepancies prove that the policies were not that effective. Among these are the present policies of US President George W. Bush. Based on the article written by Heffner titled â€Å"Bush’s Economic Policies Pt. 1† the US government estimated a $5.6 trillion surplus. But upon office, Bush came up with a towering $2.8 trillion deficit. Because of this budget deficit, the federal government made amends through foreign borrowings that lead them deeper into the arms of stock-flow trap. By having these kinds of policies, the US government failed to eliminate the problem regarding critical stocks. Based on this observation, we can say that the US economy has not significantly change from the last two decades. Thus, a stock-flow trap still bounds to happen. (Heffner) References Catherine, L. M. (August 19, 1999 ). On the Causes of the US Current Account Deficit. Retrieved December 11, 2006, from Peterson Institute for International Economics Web site: http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/paper.cfm?ResearchID=353 Heffner, J. (Mar 21, 2003). Bush's Economic Policies Pt. 1. Retrieved December 11, 2006, from Jobs and the Economy Web site: http://www.mikehersh.com/Bush_Economics_Pt_1.shtml Eatwell, Taylor, J., L. (1999, September).The American Stock-Flow Trap. Challenge. 34-49. Mike Moffatt. â€Å"What Happens If Interest Rates Go to Zero?†Ã‚   2006.   The New York Times Company. december 12 2006. ;http://economics.about.com/cs/interestrates/a/zero_interest.htm;. ;

Lieducation in preliterate societies Essay

Education, History of, theories, methods, and administration of schools and other agencies of information from ancient times to the present. Education developed from the human struggle for survival and enlightenment. It may be formal or informal. Informal education refers to the general social process by which human beings acquire the knowledge and skills needed to function in their culture. Formal education refers to the process by which teachers instruct students in courses of study within institutions. Before the invention of reading and writing, people lived in an environment in which they struggled to survive against natural forces, animals, and other humans. To survive, preliterate people developed skills that grew into cultural and educational patterns. For a particular group’s culture to continue into the future, people had to transmit it, or pass it on, from adults to children. The earliest educational processes involved sharing information about gathering food and providing shelter; making weapons and other tools; learning language; and acquiring the values, behavior, and religious rites or practices of a given culture. Through direct, informal education, parents, elders, and priests taught children the skills and roles they would need as adults. These lessons eventually formed the moral codes that governed behavior. Since they lived before the invention of writing, preliterate people used an oral tradition, or story telling, to pass on their culture and history from one generation to the next. By using language, people learned to create and use symbols, words, or signs to express their ideas. When these symbols grew into pictographs and letters, human beings created a written language and made the great cultural leap to literacy. IIIEDUCATION IN ANCIENT AFRICA AND ASIA In ancient Egypt, which flourished from about 3000 BC to about 500 BC, priests in temple schools taught not only religion but also the principles of writing, the sciences, mathematics, and architecture. Similarly in India, priests conducted most of the formal education. Beginning in about 1200 BC Indian priests taught the principles of the Veda, the sacred texts of Hinduism, as well as science, grammar, and philosophy. Formal education in China dates to about 2000 BC, though it thrived particularly during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, from 770 to 256 BC (see China: The Eastern Zhou). The curriculum stressed philosophy, poetry, and religion, in accord with the teachings of Confucius, Laozi (Lao-tzu), and other philosophers. IVEDUCATION IN ANCIENT GREECE Historians have looked to ancient Greece as one of the origins of Western formal education. The Iliad and the Odyssey, epic poems attributed to Homer and written sometime in the 8th century BC, created a cultural tradition that gave the Greeks a sense of group identity. In their dramatic account of Greek struggles, Homer’s epics served important educational purposes. The legendary Greek warriors depicted in Homer’s work, such as Agamemnon, Odysseus, and Achilles, were heroes who served as models for the young Greeks. Ancient Greece was divided into small and often competing city-states, or poleis, such as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes. Athens emphasized a humane and democratic society and education, but only about one-third of the people in Athens were free citizens. Slaves and residents from other countries or city-states made up the rest of the population. Only the sons of free citizens attended school. The Athenians believed a free man should have a liberal education in order to perform his civic duties and for his own personal development. The education of women depended upon the customs of the particular Greek city-state. In Athens, where women had no legal or economic rights, most women did not attend school. Some girls, however, were educated at home by tutors. Slaves and other noncitizens had either no formal education or very little. Sparta, the chief political enemy of Athens, was a dictatorship that used education for military training and drill. In contrast to Athens, Spartan girls received more schooling but it was almost exclusively athletic training to prepare them to be healthy mothers of future Spartan soldiers. In the 400s BC, the Sophists, a group of wandering teachers, began to teach in Athens. The Sophists claimed that they could teach any subject or skill to anyone who wished to learn it. They specialized in teaching grammar, logic, and rhetoric, subjects that eventually formed the core of the liberal arts. The Sophists were more interested in preparing their students to argue persuasively and win  arguments than in teaching principles of truth and morality. Unlike the Sophists, the Greek philosopher Socrates sought to discover and teach universal principles of truth, beauty, and goodness. Socrates, who died in 399 BC, claimed that true knowledge existed within everyone and needed to be brought to consciousness. His educational method, called the Socratic method, consisted of asking probing questions that forced his students to think deeply about the meaning of life, truth, and justice. In 387 BC Plato, who had studied under Socrates, established a school in Athens called the Academy. Plato believed in an unchanging world of perfect ideas or universal concepts. He asserted that since true knowledge is the same in every place at every time, education, like truth, should be unchanging. Plato described his educational ideal in the Republic, one of the most notable works of Western philosophy. Plato’s Republic describes a model society, or republic, ruled by highly intelligent philosopher-kings. Warriors make up the republic’s second class of people. The lowest class, the workers, provide food and the other products for all the people of the republic. In Plato’s ideal educational system, each class would receive a different kind of instruction to prepare for their various roles in society. In 335 BC Plato’s student, Aristotle, founded his own school in Athens called the Lyceum. Believing that human beings are essentially rational, Aristotle thought people could discover natural laws that governed the universe and then follow these laws in their lives. He also concluded that educated people who used reason to make decisions would lead a life of moderation in which they avoided dangerous extremes. In the 4th century BC Greek orator Isocrates developed a method of education designed to prepare students to be competent orators who could serve as government officials. Isocrates’s students studied rhetoric, politics, ethics, and history. They examined model orations and practiced public speaking. Isocrates’s methods of education directly influenced such Roman educational theorists as Cicero and Quintilian. VEDUCATION IN ANCIENT ROME While the Greeks were developing their civilization in the areas surrounding the eastern Mediterranean Sea, the Romans were gaining control of the Italian peninsula and areas of the western Mediterranean. The Greeks’ education focused on the study of philosophy. The Romans, on the other hand, were preoccupied with war, conquest, politics, and civil administration. As in Greece, only a minority of Romans attended school. Schooling was for those who had the money to pay tuition and the time to attend classes. While girls from wealthy families occasionally learned to read and write at home, boys attended a primary school, called aludus. In secondary schools boys studied Latin and Greek grammar taught by Greek slaves, called pedagogues. After primary and secondary school, wealthy young men often attended schools of rhetoric or oratory that prepared them to be leaders in government and administration. Cicero, a 1st century BC Roman senator, combined Greek and Roman ideas on how to educate orators in his book De Oratore. Like Isocrates, Cicero believed orators should be educated in liberal arts subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, logic, mathematics, and astronomy. He also asserted that they should study ethics, military science, natural science, geography, history, and law. Quintilian, an influential Roman educator who lived in the 1st century AD, wrote that education should be based on the stages of individual development from childhood to adulthood. Quintilian devised specific lessons for each stage. He also advised teachers to make their lessons suited to the student’s readiness and ability to learn new material. He urged teachers to motivate students by making learning interesting and attractive. VIANCIENT JEWISH EDUCATION Education among the Jewish people also had a profound influence on Western learning. The ancient Jews had great respect for the printed word and believed that God revealed truth to them in the Bible. Most information on ancient Jewish goals and methods of education comes from the Bible and the Talmud, a book of religious and civil law. Jewish religious leaders, known as rabbis, advised parents to teach their children religious beliefs, law, ethical practices, and vocational skills. Both boys and girls were introduced to religion by studying the Torah, the most sacred document of Judaism. Rabbis taught in schools within synagogues, places of worship and religious study. VIIMEDIEVAL EDUCATION During the Middle Ages, or the medieval period, which lasted roughly from the 5th to the 15th century, Western society and education were heavily shaped by Christianity, particularly the Roman Catholic Church. The Church operated parish, chapel, and monastery schools at the elementary level. Schools in monasteries and cathedrals offered secondary education. Much of the teaching in these schools was directed at learning Latin, the old Roman language used by the church in its ceremonies and teachings. The church provided some limited opportunities for the education of women in religious communities or convents. Convents had libraries and schools to help prepare nuns to follow the religious rules of their communities. Merchant and craft guilds also maintained some schools that provided basic education and training in specific crafts. Knights received training in military tactics and the code of chivalry. As in the Greek and Roman eras, only a minority of people went to school during the medieval period. Schools were attended primarily by persons planning to enter religious life such as priests, monks, or nuns. The vast majority of people were serfs who served as agricultural workers on the estates of feudal lords. The serfs, who did not attend school, were generally illiterate (see Serfdom). In the 10th and early 11th centuries, Arabic learning had a pronounced influence on Western education. From contact with Arab scholars in North Africa and Spain, Western educators learned new ways of thinking about mathematics, natural science, medicine, and philosophy. The Arabic number system was especially important, and became the foundation of Western arithmetic. Arab scholars also preserved and translated into Arabic the works of such influential Greek scholars as Aristotle, Euclid, Galen, and Ptolemy. Because many of these works had disappeared from Europe by the Middle Ages, they might have been lost forever if Arab scholars such as Avicenna and Averroes had not preserved them. In the 11th century medieval scholars developed Scholasticism, a philosophical and educational movement that used both human reason and revelations from the Bible. Upon encountering the works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers from Arab scholars, the Scholastics attempted to reconcile Christian theology with Greek philosophy. Scholasticism reached its high point in the Summa Theologiae of Saint Thomas Aquinas, a 13th century Dominican theologian who taught at the University of Paris. Aquinas reconciled the authority of religious faith, represented by the Scriptures, with Greek reason, represented by Aristotle. Aquinas described the teacher’s vocation as one that combines faith, love, and learning. The work of Aquinas and other Scholastics took place in the medieval institutions of higher education, the universities. The famous European universities of Paris, Salerno, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Padua grew out of the Scholastics-led intellectual revival of the 12th and 13th centuries. The name university comes from the Latin word universitas, or associations, in reference to the associations that students and teachers organized to discuss academic issues. Medieval universities offered degrees in the liberal arts and in professional studies such as theology, law, and medicine. VIIIEDUCATION DURING THE RENAISSANCE The Renaissance, or rebirth of learning, began in Europe in the 14th century and reached its height in the 15th century. Scholars became more interested in the humanist features—that is, the secular or worldly rather than the religious aspects—of the Greek and Latin classics. Humanist educators found their models of literary style in the classics. The Renaissance was a particularly powerful force in Italy, most notably in art, literature, and architecture. In literature, the works of such Italian writers as Dante Aleghieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio became especially important. Humanist educators designed teaching methods to prepare well-rounded, liberally educated persons. Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus was particularly influential. Erasmus believed that understanding and conversing about the meaning of literature was more important than memorizing it, as had been required at many of the medieval religious schools. He advised teachers to study such fields as archaeology, astronomy, mythology, history, and Scripture. The invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century made books more widely available and increased literacy rates (see Printing). But school attendance did not increase greatly during the Renaissance. Elementary schools educated middle-class children while lower-class children received little, if any, formal schooling. Children of the nobility and upper classes attended humanist secondary schools. Educational opportunities for women improved slightly during the Renaissance, especially for the upper classes. Some girls from wealthy families attended schools of the royal court or received private lessons at home. The curriculum studied by young women was still based on the belief that only certain subjects, such as art, music, needlework, dancing, and poetry, were suited for females. For working-class girls, especially rural peasants, education was still limited to training in household duties such as cooking and sewing. IXEDUCATION DURING THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION The religious Reformation of the 16th century marked a decline in the authority of the Catholic Church and contributed to the emergence of the middle classes in Europe. Protestant religious reformers, such as John Calvin, Martin Luther, and Huldreich Zwingli, rejected the authority of the Catholic pope and created reformed Christian, or Protestant, churches. In their ardent determination to instruct followers to read the Bible in their native language, reformers extended literacy to the masses. They established vernacular primary schools that offered a basic curriculum of reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion for children in their own language. Vernacular schools in England, for example, used English to teach their pupils. As they argued with each other and with the Roman Catholics on religious matters, Protestant educators wrote catechisms—primary books that summarized their religious doctrine—in a question and answer format. While the vernacular schools educated both boys and girls at the primary level, upper-class boys attended preparatory and secondary schools that continued to emphasize Latin and Greek. The gymnasium in Germany, the Latin grammar school in England, and the lycee in France were preparatory schools that taught young men the classical languages of Latin and Greek required to enter universities. Martin Luther believed the state, family, and school, along with the church, were leaders of the Reformation. Since the family shaped children’s character, Luther encouraged parents to teach their children reading and religion. Each family should pray together, read the Bible, study the catechism, and practice a useful trade. Luther believed that government should assist schools in educating literate, productive, and religious citizens. One of Luther’s colleagues, German religious reformer Melanchthon, wrote the school code for the German region of Wurttemberg, which became a model for other regions of Germany and influenced education throughout Europe. According to this code, the government was responsible for supervising schools and licensing teachers. The Protestant reformers retained the dual-class school system that had developed in the Renaissance. Vernacular schools provided primary instruction for the lower classes, and the various classical humanist and Latin grammar schools prepared upper-class males for higher education. XEDUCATIONAL THEORY IN THE 17TH CENTURY Educators of the 17th century developed new ways of thinking about education. Czech education reformer Jan Komensky, known as Comenius, was particularly influential. A bishop of the Moravian Church, Comenius escaped religious persecution by taking refuge in Poland, Hungary, Sweden, and The Netherlands. He created a new educational philosophy called Pansophism, or universal knowledge, designed to bring about worldwide understanding and peace. Comenius advised teachers to use children’s senses rather than memorization in instruction. To make learning interesting for children, he wrote The Gate of Tongues Unlocked (1631), a book for teaching Latin in the student’s own language. He also wrote Orbis Sensualium Pictus (1658; The Visible World in Pictures, 1659) consisting of illustrations that labeled objects in both their Latin and vernacular names. It was one of the first illustrated books written especially for children. The work of English philosopher John Locke influenced education in Britain and North America. Locke examined how people acquire ideas in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). He asserted that at birth the human mind is a blank slate, or tabula rasa, and empty of ideas. We acquire knowledge, he argued, from the information about the objects in the world that our senses bring to us. We begin with simple ideas and then combine them into more complex ones. Locke believed that individuals acquire knowledge most easily when they first consider simple ideas and then gradually combine them into more complex ones. In Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1697), Locke recommended practical learning to prepare people to manage their social, economic, and political affairs efficiently. He believed that a sound education began in early childhood and insisted that the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic be gradual and cumulative. Locke’s curriculum included conversational learning of foreign languages, especially French, mathematics, history, physical education, and games. XIEDUCATION DURING THE ENLIGHTENMENT The Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century produced important changes in education and educational theory. During the Enlightenment, also called the Age of Reason, educators believed people could improve their lives and society by using their reason, their powers of critical thinking. The Enlightenment’s ideas had a significant impact on the American Revolution (1775-1783) and early educational policy in the United States. In particular, American philosopher and scientist Benjamin Franklin emphasized the value of utilitarian and scientific education in American schools. Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, stressed the importance of civic education to the citizens of a democratic nation. The Enlightenment principles that considered education as an instrument of social reform and improvement remain fundamental characteristics of American education policy. XIIEDUCATION IN THE 19TH CENTURY The foundations of modern education were established in the 19th century. Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, inspired by the work of French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, developed an educational method based on the natural world and the senses. Pestalozzi established schools in Switzerland and Germany to educate children and train teachers. He affirmed that schools should resemble secure and loving homes. Like Locke and Rousseau, Pestalozzi believed that thought began with sensation and that teaching should use the senses. Holding that children should study the objects in their natural environment, Pestalozzi developed a so-called â€Å"object lesson† that involved exercises in learning form, number, and language. Pupils determined and traced an object’s form, counted objects, and named them. Students progressed from these lessons to exercises in drawing, writing, adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and reading. Pestalozzi employed the following principles in teaching: (1) begin with the concrete object before introducing abstract concepts; (2) begin with the immediate environment before dealing with what is distant and remote; (3) begin with easy exercises before introducing complex ones; and (4) always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and slowly. American educator Henry Barnard, the first U. S. Commissioner of Education, introduced Pestalozzi’s ideas to the United States in the late 19th century. Barnard also worked for the establishment of free public high schools for students of all classes of American society. German philosopher Johann Herbart emphasized moral education and designed a highly structured teaching technique. Maintaining that education’s primary goal is moral development, Herbart claimed good character rested on knowledge while misconduct resulted from an inadequate education. Knowledge, he said, should create an â€Å"apperceptive mass†Ã¢â‚¬â€a network of ideas—in a person’s mind to which new ideas can be added. He wanted to include history, geography, and literature in the school curriculum as well as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Based on his work, Herbart’s followers designed a five-step teaching method: (1) prepare the pupils to be ready for the new lesson, (2) present the new lesson, (3) associate the new lesson with ideas studied earlier, (4) use examples to illustrate the lesson’s major points, and (5) test pupils to ensure they had learned the new lesson. AKindergarten German educator Friedrich Froebel created the earliest kindergarten, a form of preschool education that literally means â€Å"child’s garden† in German. Froebel, who had an unhappy childhood, urged teachers to think back to their own childhoods to find insights they could use in their teaching. Froebel studied at Pestalozzi’s institute in Yverdon, Switzerland, from 1808 to 1810. While agreeing with Pestalozzi’s emphasis on the natural world, a kindly school atmosphere, and the object lesson, Froebel felt that Pestalozzi’s method was not philosophical enough. Froebel believed that every child’s inner self contained a spiritual essence—a spark of divine energy—that enabled a child to learn independently. In 1837 Froebel opened a kindergarten in Blankenburg with a curriculum that featured songs, stories, games, gifts, and occupations. The songs and stories stimulated the imaginations of children and introduced them to folk heroes and cultural values. Games developed children’s social and physical skills. By playing with each other, children learned to participate in a group. Froebel’s gifts, including such objects as spheres, cubes, and cylinders, were designed to enable the child to understand the concept that the object represented. Occupations consisted of materials children could use in building activities. For example, clay, sand, cardboard, and sticks could be used to build castles, cities, and mountains. Immigrants from Germany brought the kindergarten concept to the United States, where it became part of the American school system. Margarethe Meyer Schurz opened a German-language kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1855. Elizabeth Peabody established an English-language kindergarten and a training school for kindergarten teachers in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1860. William Torrey Harris, superintendent of schools in St. Louis, Missouri, and later a U. S. commissioner of education, made the kindergarten part of the American public school system. BSocial Darwinism British sociologist Herbert Spencer strongly influenced education in the mid-19th century with social theories based on the theory of evolution developed by British naturalist Charles Darwin. Spencer revised Darwin’s biological theory into social Darwinism, a body of ideas that applied the theory of evolution to society, politics, the economy, and education. Spencer maintained that in modern industrialized societies, as in earlier simpler societies, the â€Å"fittest† individuals of each generation survived because they were intelligent and adaptable. Competition caused the brightest and strongest individuals to climb to the top of the society. Urging unlimited competition, Spencer wanted government to restrict its activities to the bare minimum. He opposed public schools, claiming that they would create a monopoly for mediocrity by catering to students of low ability. He wanted private schools to compete against each other in trying to attract the brightest students and most capable teachers. Spencer’s social Darwinism became very popular in the last half of the 19th century when industrialization was changing American and Western European societies. Spencer believed that people in industrialized society needed scientific rather than classical education. Emphasizing education in practical skills, he advocated a curriculum featuring lessons in five basic human activities: (1) those needed for self-preservation such as health, diet, and exercise; (2) those needed to perform one’s occupation so that a person can earn a living, including the basic skills of reading, writing, computation, and knowledge of the sciences; (3) those needed for parenting, to raise children properly; (4) those needed to participate in society and politics; and (5) those needed for leisure and recreation. Spencer’s ideas on education were eagerly accepted in the United States. In 1918 the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, a report issued by the National Education Association, used Spencer’s list of activities in its recommendations for American education. XIIINATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION In the 19th century, governments in the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, and other European countries organized national systems of public education. The United States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, and other countries in North and South America also established national education systems based largely on European models. AIn the United Kingdom. The Church of England and other churches often operated primary schools in the United Kingdom, where students paid a small fee to study the Bible, catechism, reading, writing, and arithmetic. In 1833 the British Parliament passed a law that gave some government funds to these schools. In 1862 the United Kingdom established a school grant system, called payment by results, in which schools received funds based on their students’ performance on reading, writing, and arithmetic tests. The Education Act of 1870, called the Forster Act, authorized local government boards to establish public board schools. The United Kingdom then had two schools systems: board schools operated by the government and voluntary schools conducted by the churches and other private organizations. In 1878 the United Kingdom passed laws that limited child labor in factories and made it possible for more children to attend school. To make schooling available to working-class children, many schools with limited public and private funds used monitorial methods of instruction. Monitorial education, developed by British educators Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell, used student monitors to conduct lessons. It offered the fledgling public education system the advantage of allowing schools to hire fewer teachers to instruct the large number of new students. Schools featuring monitorial education used older boys, called monitors, who were more advanced in their studies, to teach younger children. Monitorial education concentrated on basic skills—reading, writing, and arithmetic—that were broken down into small parts or units. After a monitor had learned a unit—such as spelling words of two or three letters that began with the letter A—he would, under the master teacher’s supervision, teach this unit to a group of students. By the end of the 19th century, the monitorial system was abandoned in British schools because it provided a very limited education. BIn Russia Russian tsar Alexander II initiated education reforms leading to the Education Statute of 1864. This law created zemstvos, local government units, which operated primary schools. In addition to zemstvo schools, the Russian Orthodox Church conducted parish schools. While the number of children attending school slowly increased, most of Russia’s population remained illiterate. Peasants often refused to send their children to school so that they could work on the farms. More boys attended school than girls since many peasant parents considered female education unnecessary. Fearing that too much education would make people discontented with their lives, the tsar’s government provided only limited schooling to instill political loyalty and religious piety. CIn the United States Before the 19th century elementary and secondary education in the United States was organized on a local or regional level. Nearly all schools operated on private funds exclusively. However, beginning in the 1830s and 1840s, American educators such as Henry Barnard and Horace Mann argued for the creation of a school system operated by individual states that would provide an equal education for all American children. In 1852 Massachusetts passed the first laws calling for free public education, and by 1918 all U. S. states had passed compulsory school attendance laws. See Public Education in the United States. XIVEDUCATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY At the beginning of the 20th century, the writings of Swedish feminist and educator Ellen Key influenced education around the world. Key’s book Barnets arhundrade (1900; The Century of the Child,1909) was translated into many languages and inspired so-called progressive educators in various countries. Progressive education was a system of teaching that emphasized the needs and potentials of the child, rather than the needs of society or the principles of religion. Among the influential progressive educators were Hermann Lietz and Georg Michael Kerschensteiner of Germany, Bertrand Russell of England, and Maria Montessori of Italy. AMontessori Montessori’s methods of early childhood education have become internationally popular. Trained in medicine, Montessori worked with developmentally disabled children early in her career. The results of her work were so effective that she believed her teaching methods could be used to educate all children. In 1907 Montessori established a children’s school, the Casa dei Bambini (Children’s House), for poor children from the San Lorenzo district of Rome. Here she developed a specially prepared environment that featured materials and activities based on her observations of children. She found that children enjoy mastering specific skills, prefer work to play, and can sustain concentration. She also believed that children have a power to learn independently if provided a properly stimulating environment. Montessori’s curriculum emphasized three major classes of activity: (1) practical, (2) sensory, and (3) formal skills and studies. It introduced children to such practical activities as setting the table, serving a meal, washing dishes, tying and buttoning clothing, and practicing basic social manners. Repetitive exercises developed sensory and muscular coordination. Formal skills and subjects included reading, writing, and arithmetic. Montessori designed special teaching materials to develop these skills, including laces, buttons, weights, and materials identifiable by their sound or smell. Instructors provided the materials for the children and demonstrated the lessons but allowed each child to independently learn the particular skill or behavior. In 1913 Montessori lectured in the United States on her educational method.